The
origin of Germany traces back to the crowning of Charlemagne as Holy
Roman Emperor in 800. Upon his death the empire was split into three
parts that gradually coalesced into two-the western Frankish kingdom
that became France and the eastern kingdom that became Germany. The
title of Holy Roman Emperor remained in Charlemagne's family until
the 10th century when they died out. In 919 Henry, Duke of Saxony,
was elected king of Germany by his fellow dukes. His son Otto became
emperor in 962.
The Holy Roman Empire that Otto I controlled extended over the
German plain north to the Baltic, eastward into parts of modern
Poland, and southward through modern Switzerland, modern Austria,
and northern Italy. From the first, the emperors had a difficult
problem keeping control of two disparate regions, Germany and Italy,
that were separated by the Alps.
The Holy Roman Empire was successful at first because it benefited
the principal members, Germany and Italy. The Germans were not far
removed from the barbarian condition. They had been conquered by
Charlemagne only a century earlier. They benefited greatly from
Italian culture, technology, and trade. The Italians welcomed the
relative peace and stability the empire insured. Italy had been
invaded time and again for the previous 500 years. The protection
of the empire defended the papacy and allowed the city states of
Italy to begin their growth.
The imperial armies were manned partially by tenants of church
lands who owed service to the emperor. A second important contingent
were the ministriales, a corps of serfs who received the best training
and equipment as knights, but who were not free men. These armies
were used to put down revolts or interference by local nobles and
peasants, or to defend against raids by Vikings from the north and
Magyars from the east.
Because Germany remained a collection of independent principalities
in competition, German warriors became very skilled. They hired
out as mercenaries and sent large contingents to the Crusades. The
most renowned German soldiers were the Teutonic Knights, a religious
order of warriors inspired by the Crusades. The Teutonic Knights
spread Christianity into the Baltic region by conquest but were
eventually halted by Alexander Nevsky at the battle on frozen Lake
Peipus.
A confrontation between the emperors and the church over investiture
of bishops weakened the emperors in both Germany and Italy. During
periods of temporary excommunication of the emperor and outright
war against Rome, imperial authority lapsed. The local German princes
solidified their holdings or fought off the Vikings with no interference
or help from the emperor. In Italy, the rising city states combined
to form the Lombard League and refused to recognize the emperor.
Political power in both Germany and Italy shifted from the emperor
to the local princes and cities. The ministriales rebelled, taking
control of the cities and castles they garrisoned and declaring
themselves free. During desperate attempts to regain Italy, more
concessions were given to the local princes in Germany. By the middle
of the 13th century, the Holy Roman Empire existed in name only.
The throne remained empty for 20 years. The German princes cared
only about their own holdings. The Italian city states did not want
a German ruler and were strong enough to defend themselves.
Future emperors in the Middle Ages were elected by the German princes
but they ruled in name only, controlling little more than their
own family estates. Germany remained a minor power in Europe for
centuries to come.
