Code

Author Charles Petzold Pages 400 Disk N/A Level All Levels Published 10/11/2000 ISBN 9780735611313 Price $17.99 To see this book's discounted price, select a reseller below.	More Information About the Book Table of Contents Sample Chapter Index Related Series Related Books About the Author Support: Book & CD Rate this book

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.

Numbers
6800 microprocessor, 260–61, 281–83, 284
8080 microprocessor, 260–83, 284

A
abacus, 238
accumulator, 208, 211–13, 215, 232, 264, 268, 270–72, 282–83, 321
adding machines, 131–42, 148–49, 194, 207–8
Aiken, Howard, 243, 354
ALGOL programming language, 354–60, 362, 363
algorithms, 50, 236, 354–63
al-Khwarizmi, Muhammed ibn-Musa, 50
Allen, Paul, 362
Altair, 283–84, 302, 304, 362
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), 232, 269
Ampère, André Marie, 28
analog computers, 231
Analytical Engine, 101, 240, 241, 362
API (application programming interface), 330–32, 371, 373, 381
Apple Computer
    Apple II, 284, 366, 372
    Apple Lisa, 370
    Macintosh, 285, 334, 370, 372–73, 375, 378, 381
argument, 233
Aristotle, 86, 87, 91
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). See ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Art of Computer Programming series (Knuth), 360
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 286–300, 311–13, 315
    high-level programming language and, 351, 356–57, 365–67, 373, 378–79, 381
    operating systems and, 320–21, 323–24, 327–31
assembly language, 236
associative law, 88–89, 92, 103
"As We May Think" (Bush), 364–65, 369
AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph), 246, 248, 333. See also Bell Telephone Laboratories
Atanasoff, John V., 244
automation, 206–37

B
Babbage, Charles, 101, 240, 240, 241, 362
bandwidth, 310
Barbier, Charles, 16, 101, 240–42
Bardeen, John, 247
base two logarithm, 76
BASIC, 361–62
Baudot code, 288–90, 295
Baudot, Emile, 288
BCD (binary-coded decimal), 271, 292, 296–97, 338
Bell, Alexander Graham, 248, 377
Bell Systems Technical Journal, 246
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 243, 246–47, 249, 333, 362, 373, 377, 380. See also AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph)
big-endian method, 283
binary-coded decimal (BCD). See BCD (binary-coded decimal)
binary (base two) number system, 61–85, 182
    adding machines and, 131–43
    automation and, 208
    bytes and, 181
    conversion to/from, 184–85
    flip-flops and, 177
    signed/unsigned numbers in, 154
    switches and, 95–96
bits (binary digits). See also bytes
    carry, 136
    least-significant (rightmost), 141, 142
    logic gates and, 104
    most-significant (leftmost), 141
    origin of the term, 67–68
    overview of, 69–85
    photographic film and, 76–79, 88
    sign, 153
    sum, 136
    use of the term, by Shannon, 103, 246
Boole, George, 87, 87, 95, 101, 129–30, 359. See also Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra, 87–103, 130, 246, 269–70, 359–60, 363. See also Boole, George
Braille, 5, 31, 242, 287. See also Braille, Louis
    basic description of, 14–21
    binary digits and, comparison of, 70
    simplicity of, in comparison to Morse code, 85
Braille, Louis, 15, 15, 16, 18. See also Braille
Brattain, Walter, 247
Bricklin, Dan, 366
British Broadcasting Corporation, 7
buffers, 128–29
bugs, 236, 274, 275
Burks, Arthur W., 245
bus, 301–19
Bush, Vannevar, 364, 369, 380
Busicom, 258
Byron, Augusta Ada, 240, 362
bytes, 180–89. See also bits (binary digits)
    definition of, 180
    high-order (leftmost), 216–17
    low-order (rightmost), 216, 217, 222

C
C programming language, 362–63
calculators, 188, 231, 239
Carroll, Lewis (Charles Dodgson), 86
cathode-ray tubes (CRTs). See CRTs (cathode-ray tubes)
CD-ROM (CD Read-Only Memory), 378, 380
CDs (compact discs). See compact discs (CDs)
Census data, 241–42
character sets, 286–300. See also ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
chip, 250–59
clocks, 209, 222, 263. See also oscillators
    flip-flops and, 158, 166–68, 170–78
    memory and, 191–92
    speed of, 258, 259, 261
closed architecture, 303
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor), 251, 256
COBOL, 361
coincidence (equivalence) gate, 136
Colossus computer, 244
comments, 235–36
common connections, 34, 36
commutative rule, 88, 89
compact discs (CDs), 43, 376–78, 380
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. See CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor)
compression, 375–76, 379–80
computability, concept of, 244, 258
conditional jumps, 228
conductors, 28, 35, 38, 39
Constitution of the United States, 40, 241
contacts, electrical, 34–35
control signals, 214–15
counters, 177–78, 232
CPUs (central processing units). See microprocessors
CRTs (cathode-ray tubes), 309–15, 320, 365, 368–70
current, 28–29
cybernetics, 246
cyberspace, 246

D
Daguerre, Louis, 40
daguerreotypes, 40
data paths, 180
De Morgan, Augustus, 129–30
De Morgan’s Laws, 129–30
decimal (base ten) number system, 47–53, 336–37
    adding machines and, 132
    alternatives to, 54–68
    bits and, 69–70
    bytes and, 181
    conversion to/from, 184–89
    flip-flops and, 177
    floating-point numbers and, 341
    hexadecimal number system and, 184–89
    subtraction and, 147
decoders, 121–22, 129, 197–200
Dickson, William, 314
Difference Engine, 101, 240
digital data, 231
Digital Equipment Corporation, 354
Dodgson, Charles (Lewis Carroll), 86
DRAM (dynamic random access memory), 308–9
Dummer, Geoffrey, 250
dynamic random access memory (DRAM). See DRAM (dynamic random access memory)

E
EBCDIC character code, 295–97, 356
Ebert, Roger, 73–74, 96
Eccles, William Henry, 161
Eckert, J. Presper, 244, 246
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, 246
Edison, Thomas, 30, 314, 375
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), 245
electromagnets, 41, 44–46, 156–57, 317
    logic gates and, 106, 108–10
    memory and, 205
electrons, 23, 27–29, 33–34, 37
Engelbart, Douglas, 369, 370
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), 244, 245
error checking, 81, 82–83
escape code, 21
even parity, 81
expansion slots, 302

F
Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, 250
feedback, 155–79
Feynman, Richard, 360
file systems, 325, 333
film critics, 73–75, 85, 96
fixed-point numbers, 335–48
Fleming, John Ambrose, 243
flip-flops, 155–79, 249–50
    automation and, 207, 226
    chips and, 254–55
    edge-triggered, 170–73, 178–79, 226–27
    level-triggered, 166, 170, 173, 191
    memory and, 191
floating-point numbers, 335–38
floppy disks, 318
foreign languages, 47, 181, 298, 300
Forest, Lee de, 243
Formal Logic (De Morgan), 129
FORTRAN, 354, 360, 361
French Telegraph Service, 288
frequency dividers, 175–76
function tables, 162, 169

G
Gates, Bill, 102, 362
Gibson, William, 246
gigabyte, 202
GNU project, 334
Goldstine, Herman H., 245
Goto instruction, 226
graphical user interface (GUI). See GUI (graphical user interface)
ground, use of the term, 34–35
guard patterns, 80–81
GUI (graphical user interface), 370, 371
Gunter, Edmund, 239

H
hard disks, 318–19
hardware, use of the term, 232
Harvard Mark I/II computers, 243
Haüy, Valentin, 16, 42
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph, 159, 175, 310
hexadecimal (base 16) number system, 183–89, 234, 288–97, 321, 349
high-level programming language, 349–63
Hindu-Arabic (Indo-Arabic) number system, 50–53
Hoff, Ted, 258
Hollerith, Herman, 241, 241
Hollerith cards, 241–42
Hopper, Grace Murray, 243, 354

I
IBM (International Business Machines), 180–81, 242, 246, 261, 284–85, 332–33
    ASCII and, 295
    floating-point hardware and, 247
    high-level programming language and, 361–62, 366–67, 371–72
    peripheral devices and, 303–4, 314, 317–18
    punch cards, 295–97, 295, 317, 361
    video displays and, 366–67
IC (integrated circuit), 250–59, 301. See also chip
information
    as a choice among two or more possibilities, 72–73
    retention of, through flip-flop circuits, 161
    theory, 246
initialization code, 323
input devices, 105, 231, 261–62
integrated circuit (IC). See chip; IC (integrated circuit)
Intel, 258–61, 284, 303, 309, 320, 327, 332, 348
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 288
interrupts, 280–81, 332
inverters, 119, 129, 149–50, 157
    automation and, 215–16
    memory and, 195
ITU (International Telecommunication Union). See International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

J
Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 239
Jacquard loom, 239–41
Java, 381–82
Jobs, Steven, 284, 370
Jordan, F. W., 161

K
Kemeny, John, 361
Keuffel & Esser Company, 239
keyboard, 315–17, 322–24, 349, 369
Kilby, Jack, 250
Kildall, Gary, 326
kilobytes, 201–3
kinetograph devices, 314
Knuth, Donald, 360
Kurtz, Thomas, 361

L
labels, 234–35
language
    foreign, 47, 181, 298, 300
    high-level programming, 349–63
    machine (machine code), 232, 236, 321, 349–63
    speech and, 5
    use of the term, 232
last-in-first-out (LIFO) storage. See LIFO (last-in-first-out) storage
Law of Contradiction, 91
Laws of Thought, The (Boole), 101
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 87, 239
LIFO (last-in-first-out) storage, 273
Linux, 334
little-endian method, 283
logarithms, 76, 231, 236, 238–40, 340, 346–47
logic, 85, 86–101, 285. See also logic gates
    character sets and, 295
    tables, 194–95, 197
logic gates, 102–30, 214, 307–8
    binary addition and, 134–38
    chips and, 252–55
    flip-flops and, 159–64, 167, 169
    memory and, 191, 195, 197, 205
    semiconductors and, 249
    subtraction and, 148, 150, 151
    vacuum tubes and, 243–44, 249
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 70–72
Lowell, Amy, 312

M
machine code (machine language), 232, 236, 321, 349–63
magnetic storage, 317–18
Maltin, Leonard, 74–75
Marquez, Gabriel Garcia, 5
Mathematical Analysis of Logic, The (Boole), 129
"Mathematical Theory of Communication, A" (Shannon), 246
Mauchly, John, 244
McCarthy, John, 363
Memex, 364, 380
memory, 190–205, 243, 355–56. See also RAM (random access memory)
    1-bit, 167
    basic description of, 231
    high-level programming language and, 349
    magnetic core, 245
    mercury delay line, 245
    microprocessors and, 261–85
    operating systems and, 320, 321
    peripheral devices and, 319
    storage and, difference between, 319
memory-mapped I/O, 280
microprocessors, 231–32, 246–48. See also 6800 microprocessor; 8080 microprocessor
    high-level programming language and, 349–50, 352
    invention of, 250–59
    memory and, 261–85
    operating systems and, 320
    peripheral devices and, 302, 303, 305, 317
    single-chip, 261
    two classic, 260–85
Microsoft Corporation, 102, 362
    MS-DOS operating system, 332, 333, 354–55, 365, 371, 372
    Windows operating system, 334, 372–73, 378
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 103, 333, 364, 367
mnemonics, 232–33, 264, 267, 349
Moore, Gordon E., 251, 258. See also Moore’s Law
Moore’s Law, 251, 285, 309
Morse, Samuel, 9, 15, 40, 40, 42, 44, 101, 240. See also Morse code
Morse code, 1–14, 31–32, 40–46, 382. See also Morse, Samuel
    binary digits and, comparison of, 70
    character sets and, 287, 289
    invention of, 9–10
    telegraph system and, 33–39
    UPC codes and, 80, 83–85
MOS Technology, 284
motherboard, 302
Motorola, 259–60, 281, 283, 285, 348, 370
MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), 332, 333, 354–55, 365, 371, 372
Multics, 333
multitasking, 334
Murray code, 288
Murray, Donald, 288

N
nanoseconds, 253
Napier, John, 238, 239
Napier’s Bones, 239
National Semiconductor, 260
negation, 146
negative transition, 173
networks, 103, 104
Neumann, John von, 245, 245, 246, 363, 367, 372
neutrons, 23–24
Newton, Isaac, 87
nibble, definition of, 181
nines’ complement, 144–45
Nobel Prize, 247
noise, 72
Noyce, Robert, 250, 253, 258
NPN transistors, 248
number systems, 47–70, 335–48. See also specific number systems
Nyquist, Harry, 377

O
OCR (optical character recognition), 80, 376
octal (base eight) number system, 55–60, 63, 181–82
odd parity, 81
Ohm, Georg Simon, 29
Ohm’s Law, 39
One Hundred Years of Solitude (Marquez), 5
ones’ complement, 146, 150–51, 154
opcodes, 213, 215, 217–19, 263–64, 270–72, 276–77, 279–82, 285
open architecture, 303
operands, 87, 92–94
operating systems, 319, 320–34, 370–71
optical character recognition (OCR). See OCR (optical character recognition)
Organon (Aristotle), 86
Orlando, Tony, 69, 71
oscillators, 157–59, 173–76, 178, 209, 222, 262
oscilloscope, 367
Oughtred, William, 239
output devices, 105, 231, 261–62

P
parity, 81
Pascal, Blaise, 239
Pascal programming language, 362
Paterson, Tim, 332
Pentium microprocessors, 284–85, 348. See also microprocessors
petabyte, 202
Pfleumer, Fritz, 317
phonograph, 376
photographic film, 76–79, 85
pixels, 311–13, 367–68, 370
Polonius, 144
pop, 273
positional number systems, 50
Poulsen, Valdemar, 317
"Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument" (Burks, Goldstine, and Neumann), 245
printing telegraph, 288
protocols, 381
push, 273

Q
quaternary number system, 60–61, 63

R
Radio Shack, 38, 39, 110, 244, 284
RAM (random access memory). See also memory; RAM arrays
    automation and, 208–15, 219, 220–32, 236–37
    basic description of, 198–99
    microprocessors and, 258, 261, 263, 272–73, 284
    operating systems and, 320, 325, 328
    peripheral devices and, 301–2, 304–8, 312–13, 314, 317, 319
    quantities of, 201–3
    as volatile memory, 205
RAM arrays, 199–205, 249, 250, 256. See also RAM (random access memory)
    automation and, 208–15, 220–27, 231–32, 236–37
    microprocessors and, 263, 284
    peripheral devices and, 304–5, 308
random access memory (RAM). See RAM (random access memory)
read-only memory (ROM). See ROM (read-only memory)
registers, 264–67, 275–79, 282
Remington Rand, 246, 317, 354
resistance, 28–30, 37–39
resolution, 311, 314
Revere, Paul, 70–72
Ritchie, Dennis M., 333, 362
ROM (read-only memory), 312–13, 324–25, 332

S
scanning devices, 79–81, 83
Scheutz, Edvard, 241
Scheutz, George, 241
semiconductors, 247–49, 260
Shannon, Claude, 103, 105, 130, 246
Shockley, William, 247, 249
Shockley Semiconductor Laboratories, 249
short circuits, 30
Sieve of Eratosthenes, 359, 360
signed binary numbers, 154
Siskel, Gene, 73–74
Socrates, 86, 91–92
software
    engineers, 232
    use of the term, 232
solid-state electronics, 248
speaker wire, 38–39
SRAM (static random access memory), 308–9
stable states, 161
stacks, 273–76, 282
static random access memory (SRAM). See SRAM (static random access memory)
Stibitz, George, 243, 246, 380
Stroustrup, Bjarne, 373
Sun Microsystems, 381
syllogism, 86, 91
"Symbolic Analysis of Replay and Switching Circuits" (Shannon), 103, 105, 130
synchronicity, 158

T
Tabulating Machine Company, 242
tabulation machines, 241–42
TANSTAAFL principle, 222
tape systems, 317–18
Technical Reference manual (IBM), 303
telegraph systems, 33–46, 101, 105–6, 242. See also Morse code
telephone systems, 72, 75–76, 242, 317
teletypewriters, 288–90
television screens, 310–11, 314
tens’ complement, 152, 153–54
terabyte, 202
Texas Instruments, 250, 251, 257
Thompson, Ken, 333
Torvalds, Linus, 334
transistors, 142, 247–50, 260–61, 285, 305. See also TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
trigonometry, 231, 236, 239
true/false values, 85–86, 93
TTL (transistor-transistor logic), 251–56, 305, 308. See also transistors
TTL Data Book for Design Engineers, 251–56
Tukey, John Wilder, 68
Turing, Alan M., 244, 258–59
Turing Test, 244

U
Unicode, 300
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer), 246, 354
Universal Product Code (UPC). See UPC (Universal Product Code)
UNIX, 246, 333–34, 362
UPC (Universal Product Code), 79–85

V
vacuum tubes, 37–38, 142, 243, 247, 249
variables, 355–56
video displays, 311–15, 321, 324, 332, 334, 349, 366–70, 372
virtual memory, 334
VisiCalc, 366–67
voltage, 27–30, 37–39, 43
    flip-flops and, 157, 159
    logic gates and, 107–9, 113–14, 120
Volto, Count Alessandro, 28
von Neumann architecture, 245
von Neumann bottleneck, 245

W
Warnock, John, 374
Watson, Thomas J., 242
Watt, James, 31
white space, 234
Wiener, Norbert, 246
Wilson, Flip, 371
Windows (Microsoft). See Microsoft Corporation, Windows operating system
Wirth, Niklaus, 362
Wozniak, Stephen, 284
WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get), 371

X
Xerox PARC, 369, 370, 372

Z
Zenith, 251
Zuse, Conrad, 243